Zürcher, Erik. "A New Look at the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Texts." in Koichi Shinohara and Gregory Schopen, eds. From Benares to Beijing: Essays on Buddhism and Chinese Religion in Honour of Prof. Jan Yün-hua, 277-304. Oakville, Canada: Mosaic Press, 1991.
| Assertion | Argument | Place in source |
|---|---|---|
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Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Ren ben yu sheng jing 人本欲生經 T14 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T14 contains “explanation of the twelve members of the Chain of Causation". |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Ben xiang yi zhi jing 本相猗致經 T36 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T36 describes “causal series leading from ‘bad company’, via ‘unbelief’, ‘wrong thoughts’ … to ‘desire’, and the opposite series, leading for ‘good company’ to ‘emancipation.’” |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s (Fo shuo) Fa shou chen jing 佛說法受塵經 T792 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T792 is a “very short text explaining how sexual desire obstructs the way to insight and true happiness.” |
279, 298 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Daodi jing 道地經 T607 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T607 is a “primitive translation of Saṅgharakṣa’s Yogācārabhūmi, a treatise on dhyāna". |
279, 298 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Chanxing faxiang jing 禪行法想經 T605 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T605 is a “very short text containing a list of themes for contemplation.” |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Yin chi ru jing 陰持入經 T603 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T603 is a “scholastic compendium dealing with sense-perception, the four bases of supernatural power, the five powers, etc.” |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Ba zheng dao jing 雜阿含三十章; 佛說八正道經 T112 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T112 discusses “the eight bad ways of action and the eight good ways of action that constitute the Eightfold Path.” |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Pu fayi jing 普法義經 T98 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T98 contains “various series of 12, 20, 16… etc. factors, every series being conductive or obstructive to Emancipation." |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Lou fenbu jing 漏分布經 T57 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T57 contains “scholastic enumeration of the Impurities, Sense-desires, Feelings, Perceptions, etc., together with their causal factors and their bad consequences.” |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher claims that the Taizi rui ying ben qi jing 太子瑞應本起經 T185 incorporates many passages of the Xiuxing benqi jing 修行本起經 T184. |
296 n. 20 |
|
Zürcher argues that *Lokakṣema’s Azheshi wang jing 阿闍世王經 T626 [Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana] is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T626 is a “Mahāyāna treatment of the theme of King Ajātaśatru of Magadha being tortured by remorse after having killed his father; he is converted by the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī." |
279, 299 |
Zürcher argues that *Lokakṣema’s Yi ri moni bao jing [佛說]遺日摩尼寶經 T350 [Kāśyapaparivarta] is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T350 is an “archaic translation of the Kāśyapaparivarta, about the Bodhisattva career and the doctrine of Emptiness.” |
279, 299 |
|
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Shi fa fei fa jing 是法非法經 T48 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translation. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T48 contains examples which how the virtuous monk will “never boast of his religious attainments, and how he who is lacking in virtue will become arrogant, to his own detriment.” |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher argues that the Zhong benqi jing 中本起經 T196 forms a continuous whole with the Xiuxing benqi jing修行本起經 T184; the last paragraph of T184 is “repeated verbatim” in the beginning of T196. T196 is one in a group of twenty-nine texts which Zürcher argues can be considered a “genuine” Han translation. |
296 n. 20 |
|
Zürcher argues that the “authenticity” of the Xiuxing benqi jing 修行本起經 T184 as a late Han translation is “beyond all doubt”, although it is not listed in Sengyou's Chu Sanzang ji ji. Zürcher's argument consists of three main steps: first, he states that the text forms a continuous whole with the Zhong benqi jing 中本起經 T196, such that the last paragraph of T184 is “repeated verbatim” in the beginning of T196; second, the text's early date is secured by the fact that several passages were incorporated in the 太子瑞應本起經 T185; finally, the text introduces a number of glosses with the words “Han yan...” 漢言 which Zürcher claims points to a date before 220. T184 one of a group of twenty-nine texts which Zürcher argues can be considered a “genuine” Han translation. |
296 n. 20 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s (Chang ahan) shi baofa jing 長阿含十報法經 T13 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T13 contains “classification of terms in groups of ten, with short explanation". |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher concludes that the Daoxing (bore) jing 道行般若經 (Aṣṭasāhaśrikā prajñāpāramitā) T224 is a “landmark;” that is, an “unquestionably authentic product” of *Lokakṣema. His confidence in this text's attribution relies on Dao'an's catalogue, Dao'an's preface to the sūtra which marks it as *Lokakṣema's work, and a colophon from the year 179 which supplies details on the circumstances of the translation and the names of collaborators. On top of this strong external evidence, Zürcher subjects T224 to “terminological and stylistic analysis” which confirms distinctive features peculiar to *Lokakṣema's team. According to Zürcher, T224 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. |
278 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Xuan and Yan Fotiao’s Fajing jing 法鏡經 T322 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered a “genuine” Han translation. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T322 is the “earliest translation of the Ugra(data)-paripṛcchā, in which the Buddha explains the duties of the lay believer to the householder Ugra(data), in Mahāyānistic terms.” |
279, 299 |
Zürcher lists the Dunzhentuoluo suo wen rulai sanmei jing 伅真陀羅所問如來三昧經 T624 among a list of “three archaic texts with doubtful attributions.” Senyou listed the text as “lost;” in the Kaiyuan lu and following catalogues it is mentioned as an existing text translated by *Lokakṣema. Zürcher argues that the style and terminology reveal that is certainly a Han text, “albeit with some hesitation as regards its attribution to *Lokakṣema.” He adds that T624 is an archaic translation of the Druma-kiṃnararāja-paripṛcchā. “Very elaborate text, largely consisting of numerical series, in which both the Buddha and King Druma (the ruler of the semi-human beings called kiṃnara) explain and glorify the Bodhisattva career and the Mahāyāna doctrine of universal Emptiness.” The text’s finale is the prophecy of King Druma’s future Buddhahood. |
300 |
|
|
Zürcher labels Zhi Yao's Chengju guangming dingyi jing 成具光明定意經 T630 a “highly individual creation.” He notes that proper names and technical terms are conveyed with Chinese equivalents which “do not occur in the works of earlier translators.” Furthermore, the language of T630 is “more classical than that of any other Han Buddhist text.” |
284 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Si di jing 四諦經 T32 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T32 is an “exposition of the four noble truths.” |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher lists the Wu yin piyu jing 河中大聚沫經; 五陰譬喻經 T105 among a list of “three archaic texts with doubtful attributions.” Dao’an attributed T105 to An Shigao, but Zürcher argues that the style and terminology of the text are definitely not those of An Shigao and his team. He adds that T105 is a “very short text containing a number of stereotyped similes illustrating the unreality of the five constituent elements (skandha) of the pseudo-person.” |
300 |
|
Zürcher lists the Zhuan falun jing 轉法輪經 T109 among a list of “three archaic texts with doubtful attributions.” Dao’an attributed T109 to An Shigao, but Zürcher argues that the text contains “stylistic features and wenyan admixtures” which do not usually feature in the translations of An Shigao and his team. He adds that T109 is an “archaic translation of the Buddha’s first sermon held at Benares, with an introductory passage that does not appear in any other known version.” |
300 |
Zürcher argues that the Banzhou sanmei jing 般舟三昧經 (Pratyutpannabuddhasammukhāvasthitasamādhi-sūtra) T417 is a “later ‘polished’ extract” based upon T418. For an in-depth study of internal evidence, Zürcher cites Paul Harrison, The Pratyutpanna-buddha-saṃmukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra, an annotated English translation of the Tibetan version (PhD. Dissertation, A.N.U.), Canberra, 1979, Appendix A, esp. pp. 200-235. |
298 |
|
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Zürcher argues that *Lokakṣema’s (Fo shuo) neizang bai bao jing 內藏百寶經 T807 [Lokānuvartanā-sūtra] is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered a “genuine” Han translation. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T807 is a “Mahāyānistic interpretation of the Buddha’s life as a series of ‘magic performances’ intended to lead all beings to salvation.” |
279, 299 |
|
Zürcher argues that *Lokakṣema’s Wenshushili wen pusa shu jing 文殊師利問菩薩署經 T458 [Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā] is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T458 contains an “exposition of the stages of the Bodhisattva career, explained in terms of the doctrine of universal Emptiness. The sūtra shows an interesting affinity with the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa.” |
279, 299 |
|
Zürcher argues that *Lokakṣema’s Banzhou sanmei jing 般舟三昧經 T418 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T418 is the earliest version of the Bhadrapāla-sūtra, which deals “with the power of this samādhi that enables the devotee to visualise the Buddha Amitābha". According to Zürcher, Harrison argues that only the Korean recension of the text represents *Lokakṣema’s original translation; the others “contain a great number of interpolations and variants” that were most likely borrowed from Dharmarakṣa’s late third century version. For an in-depth study of the internal issues of this text Zürcher cites Paul Harrison, The Pratyutpanna-buddha-saṃmukhāvasthita-samādhi-sūtra, an annotated English translation of the Tibetan version (PhD. Dissertation, A.N.U.), Canberra, 1979, Appendix A, esp. pp.200-235. |
279, 298 |
|
Zürcher argues that *Lokakṣema’s Achu Fo guo jing 阿閦佛國經 T313 [Akṣobhyavyūha] is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T313 is a “'Pure Land’ type sūtra devoted to the glorification of Akṣobhya, the Buddha of the Eastern paradise.” |
279, 298 |
|
Zürcher argues that *Lokakṣema’s (Fo shuo) Dousha jing 佛說兜沙經 T280 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds tht T280 is a “short sūtra containing a description of the miraculous apparition of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas from all directions of space and an enumeration of their names.” |
279, 298 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Ahan koujie shi’er yinyuan jing 阿含口解十二因緣經 T1508 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T1508 is “commonly, but no doubt wrongly, attributed to An Xuan;” Dao’an’s attribution to An Shigao is supported by terminology. The text is “an exegetical work explaining, inter alia, the Chain of Causation, the composition and functions of the body, the elements as the causes of diseases etc.” |
279, 298 |
|
Zürcher argues that An Shigao’s Yiqie liu she shou yin jin 一切流攝守因經 T31 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which can be considered “genuine” Han translations. Zürcher reaches this conclusion by a “critical selection” process which requires reliable bibliographic attribution, alongside corroborating evidence from glosses, colophons, prefaces, or commentaries; as well as internal “terminological and stylistic analysis” to identify distinctive features particular to certain translator’s teams. He adds that T31 is a “very short text explaining the way to extirpate the Impurities.” |
279, 297 |
|
Zürcher concludes that the 大安般守意經 T602 is a “landmark”; that is, an “unquestionably authentic product” of its attributed translator An Shigao. The text was initially attributed to An Shigao by Dao'an, it is extensively quoted in the earliest commentaries, and a preface by Kang Senghui attributes the translation to An Shigao and mentions devotees of his school by name. As well as this strong external evidence, Zürcher subjects T602 to “terminological and stylistic analysis” which confirms distinctive features peculiar to An Shigao's team. T602 is one of a group of twenty-nine texts which Zürcher argues can be considered “genuine” Han translations. |
278 |